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Propulsion and Energy

Cryogenic fuels in aviation

By Chuming Wei and Bhupendra Khandelwal|December 2023

The Terrestrial Energy Systems Technical Committee works to advance the application of engineering sciences and systems engineering to the production, storage, distribution and conservation of energy for terrestrial uses.

Decarbonizing the transportation sector necessitates alternatives comparable to conventional liquid fuels with zero or as low as possible carbon content. Cryogenic fuels like hydrogen and natural gas are possible solutions, a crucial consideration for these fuels is their high volumetric and gravimetric energy densities. Liquification is required to maximize the volumetric energy density. Cryogenic technology is also advancing its energy efficiency. Linde of Ireland, Air Liquide of France and Chart Industries of Georgia predict that the cryogenic equipment market will be a $400 billion industry by 2033.

This year, the aviation sector witnessed groundbreaking strides toward sustainable flight, with several companies leading the charge by retrofitting existing aircraft to run on hydrogen. California-based ZeroAvia flight tested a 19-seat aircraft in January. The aircraft took off  from Cotswold Airport in the United Kingdom, one of its turboprop engines replaced by a combination of batteries and hydrogen fuel cells; the other engine used conventional kerosene. Batteries and hydrogen each contributed 50% to powering the aircraft’s left side during its 10-minute journey. Universal Hydrogen of California has retrofitted an ATR-72 and a De Havilland Dash 8-300 with a similar aim. The Dash 8 set a record in March as the largest aircraft to take flight propelled by hydrogen fuel cells. In the United Kingdom, Cranfield Aerospace Solutions prepared to unveil its converted nine-seat Britten-Norman demonstrator.

Airbus continued cryogenic hydrogen tank development at its Zero Emission Development Centre in Bristol, U.K. Cryogenic fuel storage is pivotal to the company’s plans to have a hydrogen-powered passenger airliner flying by 2035. Plans call for Airbus has ground tests and, starting in 2026, flight tests with the ZEROe demonstrator. Simultaneously, its Advanced Superconducting and Cryogenic Experimental Powertrain Demonstrator initiative is delving into the potential of superconducting materials and cryogenic temperatures in aircraft electrical propulsion systems.

In June, GKN Aerospace in the U.K. and Embraer announced a partnership to develop a hydrogen flight demonstrator powered by GKN’s advanced fuel cell concept, which uses a cryogenically cooled electrical system for superior efficiency. Such advancements not only cater to aircraft in the 100-plus passenger segment but also open the door for potentially larger models.

In June, Narendra Joshi of the SafeAvia Ltd. consultancy presented the progress made and the need for cryogenic renewable natural gas-powered aviation in a panel session at the American Society of Mechanical Engineers’ Turbo Expo in London. He said it is important to solve the immediate problem of sustainability in aviation and that cryogenic renewable natural gas is an immediate solution. He also pointed out that production and pricing of sustainable aviation fuel is not at par with industry demands and that some other sustainable option is needed. He also questioned the operational viability of cryogenic hydrogen.

In July, phase one of the program CHEETA, Center for High-Efficiency Electrical Technologies for Aircraft, concluded. Funded by NASA and led by Phil Ansell from the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, researchers are studying cryogenic liquid hydrogen in collaboration with Boeing, General Electric and the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory.

September saw the U.K.’s aviation giants — easyJet, Rolls-Royce and Airbus among them — form the Hydrogen in Aviation alliance. Advocating hydrogen as a key to decarbonize aviation, the alliance highlighted the work of its various members. Also in September, German company H2FLY reported the world’s first piloted flight of an aircraft powered by liquid hydrogen. The company flew its HY4 demonstrator from Maribor, Slovenia, powered by a hydrogen-electric fuel cell system using liquid hydrogen.

2023 Year in Review

Aerospace Design and Structures

A spacecraft with large, blue solar panels and satellite components orbits above the Earth, with the planet visible along with clouds and a distant sunrise or sunset.

Developing technology for smallsat solar arrays and antennas

A satellite with a large mesh antenna orbits above Earth, with blue oceans and white clouds visible in the background.

Deployable structures expand the capabilities of small satellites

Two identical, gray, 3D-printed mechanical parts displayed on a plain background, each featuring geometric internal structures for support.

Active materials, adaptive structures combine to enhance performance of aerospace systems

Aerospace Outreach

A total solar eclipse with a prominent corona visible around the dark silhouette of the moon against a black sky.

Space geeks and others bask in solar eclipse

A robotic rover, equipped with scientific instruments and cameras, navigates a rocky, barren landscape on Mars.

A year of space tourism flights, planetary exploration and limited air travel

An astronaut in a blue shirt floats in a cluttered space station module, with various equipment and wires around. Another astronaut is visible in the background.

A year of breaking ground: moon landings, asteroid samples and diverse spaceflight crews

Aerospace Sciences

A large, tan-colored military communication satellite dish is mounted on a container in an outdoor setting with a cloudy sky.

Promising technologies from plasmas, lasers, directed energy

A close-up view of a propeller blade covered with thick, sharp ice crystals in a wind tunnel testing environment.

Machine learning, flight experiments highlight progress in aerospace environments

A thermal image shows the progression of heat over time in three rows labeled B=1T, B=2T, and B=3T. Bright yellow signifies high temperature areas against a blue background.

Plasma-assisted propulsion and energy: toward carbon-free, high-efficiency processes

Aircraft Technology, Integration and Operations

A white and black UPS vertical takeoff and landing aircraft flies over a mountainous landscape at dusk.

Flying on Mars and developing V/STOL and eVTOL programs continue apace

A white drone hovers in the foreground while three people stand near an open container in a desert setting. Equipment and documents are visible on a table next to the container.

Aviation operations focus on safety, efficiency and accommodating new entrants

NASA’s Ikhana unmanned aircraft

FAA reaches NextGen, unmanned air milestones

Engineering and Technology Management

British F-35Bs

Vertical flight continues to grow

Atmospheric picture of space

A century ago, aviation became an industry

Blue Origin’s BE-4 engine for ULA’s Vulcan

Profits dip in aerospace, defense sectors

Information Systems

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A drone on Mars hints at space computing things to come

Two aircraft, one conventional and one appearing translucent, seen flying side by side over a large body of water.

Year brings greater dependency on software

Robonaut 2, a humanoid robot with a gold visor, works inside the cluttered interior of the International Space Station, surrounded by various wires and equipment.

Testing autonomy for lunar Gateway, Robonaut 2 and aviation

Integration

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Marching toward the 2030 vision of CFD

Military personnel gather around and observe a large drone-like vehicle on a field. One individual in uniform is seated inside the vehicle, while another person stands nearby explaining.

Aerospace traffic management faces new challenges

A gray top hat floats in space, emitting a stream of white smoke-like substance over a red, rocky planet surface.

Progress toward the 2030 vision of CFD

Program Committees

A large cylindrical object is positioned in the center of an industrial facility with yellow overhead cranes and metallic structures.

Space Launch System keeps pace

130-foot-long fuel tank test article for NASA’s Space Launch System

Mars, Jupiter and the human factor

solar-powered Aquila high-altitude unmanned aircraft

Unmanned integration efforts gain speed

Propulsion and Energy

Two people in lab coats stand in front of a large solar panel array in an indoor facility with overhead lighting.

Radioisotope and solar-powered missions to Mars, moon, GEO

Aerial view of a NASA rocket on a launch pad surrounded by a forested area. Multiple cranes and scaffolding are seen around the structure under a clear sky.

Commercial Crew, engine tests mark an active year

A rocket engine is undergoing a test firing, releasing flames and exhaust gases in an outdoor facility surrounded by a forest and clear sky.

Toward bigger and better hybrid rockets

Space and Missiles

A dense field of distant galaxies and stars with varying brightness and colors against a dark background, captured by the James Webb Space Telescope. There are multiple lens flare patterns from bright sources.

New windows into the universe and new commercial space capabilities

A yellow automated external defibrillator (aed) training unit with black electrode pads, set on a wooden table.

Space suits, virtual reality tools tested

Aerial view of a densely built urban area with a large road intersection, featuring varied building sizes and open spaces.

Record launch included 100 small satellites

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Cryogenic fuels in aviation